Causes of Unrest in Middle East and North Africa

Causes of Unrest in Middle East and North Africa Historians and philosophers, political scientists, economists, and sociologists are trying to identify the root causes of social unrest and their implications in the Arab countries of the Middle East and North Africa in the end of the first and the beginning of the second decade of the 21st century. There are quite a lot of factors serving as the foundation for social unrest in the ME and NA. They are both objective and subjective. The bases of social revolutions are mainly domestic factors, though not without external assumptions. The root causes of the revolutionary upheavals in the Arab world and the Middle East and North African crisis lie in the limited model of modernization, which has led to a disproportionate, extensive and slow development of the region. [1] In January 2014, the Arab world has noted the fourth anniversary of the event, which journalists dubbed as the â€Å"Arab Spring â€Å". Indeed, at first, the world started to witness â€Å"iconic† events occur ring in the region, where the resignation of Tunisian President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, who ruled the country since 1987, on January 14 2011, launched the cascade known as the domino effect. Later, on the 11th of February 2011 the fall of Tunisian president was followed by the most sensational resignation of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, who ruled the country since 1981. In combination with the removal of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi (who ruled from 1969) on the 20th of October 2011, events of the â€Å"Arab Spring† began to be perceived and interpreted as signs of radical changes in the entire Arab region, and more broadly within the whole Islamic World [1] . The nomination of main slogans demanding the democratisation of public institutions of government had a dual effect on the countries of the region. Firstly, the â€Å"spring tide† having swept away a number of Middle Eastern regimes, still failed to overthrow the most powerful outposts of authoritarianism w ithin the region [2] . These authoritarian outposts are personified by Arab Monarchies of the Persian Gulf [3] , who happen to be traditional allies of the USA. Reluctance to initiate the reforms for the liberalisation of the regime led to them being discredited in the eyes of the global community as well as the indigenous peoples of the region. And secondly, the events of the last decade, beginning with the US invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq [4] have led, in combination with crisis of power in Egypt and Syria, to the elimination of the political culture and institutions of the Middle East, by knocking out the traditional â€Å"heavyweights† of the Middle East: Iraq, Egypt and Syria. All of these events together resulted in the emergence of activity of those labelled as â€Å"outsiders† by the Arab world. These non-Arab â€Å"outsiders† are primarily Iran and Turkey. The failure of the revolutions to lay foundation for new Political, Economic and Social instit utions has been replaced by simple â€Å"reshuffling of spheres of power and influence. And in Iran, a â€Å"green movement† has been chosen as an alternative path [5] . Throughout the course of the revolution, there were strong expectations that the Middle East was entering a period of democratic development [6] , which was said to achieve all of the attributes of a free civil society, which had for so many years existed in Western countries. However, further advancement of the situation in the region has led to an increase in the influence of supporters of critical perception of the nature and probable consequences of this rebellious movement not only for countries of that region, but also for the whole system of modern international relations. Western experts have increasingly highlighted the ambiguity of this phenomenon for the fate of the entire region, by agreeing on the fundamental reshaping of the entire system of â€Å"balance of forces†. This choir is partic ularly dominated by the notable work of Efraim Inbar, an Israeli expert and his work â€Å"The Arab uprisings and national safety of Israel.†According to Inbar, all what is happening in the region, will not deliver any positive outcomes in terms of stability and regional security† [7] . Despite the secular influence of Western culture, none of the Arab States managed to build a stable, democratic society, based on the ideas of civil liberties, political rights, a system of universal education, gender equality and economic development. The â€Å"democratic† elections in Lebanon in 2005 and Palestine in 2009 brought to power of the Islamists, indicating that the imperfection of the civil society in the Arab world. The most dangerous version of the situation under the influence of the â€Å"Arab Spring† and according to Inbar, there will be an emergence of nuclear Iran, who may ultimately win some time to complete work on its nuclear program and put the globa l community fait accompli. This may result in a â€Å"chain reaction† when other countries region will aim to commence the development of their own nuclear programs, seriously complicating the national security of Israel, which as of now is the only nuclear Power in the conflict-laden region. Activation of Iran on the foreign policy arena after the uprisings is not accidental. Behind its activation lies the influx of huge amounts of Petrodollars, rising anti-American sentiment in the region caused by frankly failed policies of the United States, the rise to power of an ambitious and eccentric leader Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, Iran’s implementation of its own â€Å"nuclear program†, which turned into a personification of Iran’s power revival [8] . Hence the interest of specialists and politicians on foreign policy doctrine of modern Iran, where it states that it is based not on the principles of national interest but rather the principle of Islamic solidarity, r ooted in the teachings of Imam Khomeini, in relation to the Islamic revolution. Thus, consideration of ideological concepts of Imam Khomeini in interpreting the current leader of the Islamic Revolution (Rahbar) Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, should help understanding and explaining the steps taken by Iran during the reign of the current President of Iran Mahmoud Ahmadinejad [9] . The analysis of these concepts will help to forecast future foreign policy initiatives of Iran with its aim to resolve the intra-regional problems.

European Court of Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

European Court of Justice - Essay Example This case was a landmark in the history of the ECJ and the conclusion drawn was "the Community constitutes a new legal order of international law for the benefit of which the states have limited their sovereign rights, albeit within limited fields, and the subjects of which comprise not only Member States but also their nationals". The ECJ also held that either an individual or a firm can depend on the provisos of the accords against the national government and its rights are enforceable in a domestic court. The legal footing for the conclusion in Van Gend en Loos is very disputable. The Court interpreted Article 12 as meaning to bestow rights on individuals. The Court cited the Preamble, which mentions citizens and also States, and to the introductory indication system in Article 177 (which is now Article 234). This very clearly predicts that parties can bring up queries of Community law in the national courts. Actually here the general wording of the EC accord can be interpreted as one that inflicts direct effect and develops personal rights to be protected by the national courts.2 The court had implemented and elaborated direct outcome to include secondary legislation, especially the directives (Miriam Lenz, et al 2000, p.509). In fact the court had actually stated that the impact of a directive "would be weakened if individuals were prevented from relying on it before national courts and if the latter were prevented from taking it into consideration as an element of Community law."3 It is clear that the conception of direct consequence is one of the most essential legal doctrines created by ECJ (Prinssen and Schrauwen, 2002). The loyalty principle stated that the Member States had to obey their principles.4 As a result the national courts had a duty based on the principle of supremacy to give priority to community law when a disagreement arose with national law. Under these circumstances the community law would have to be applied directly in a legal challenge. Thus the effet utile, of EC law as a result called for the national courts to enforce community law in the circumstances where it was appropriate (Paul, and Grainne, 2003). This adaptation of the Court that a proviso of a directive has the capacity of being dependent even in legal proceedings amid individual parties has in reality blurred the inhibition of the horizontal direct outcome of directives. Fundamental policy The primary policy rationale for rejection of horizontal direct impact of Directives in Marshall5 was only a textual controversy. The ECJ adjudged that a Directive cannot be dependent against an individual since, "according to Article [249] of the EEC Treaty, the binding nature of a directive, which constitutes the basis for the possibility of relying on the directive before a national Court, exists only in relation to 'each Member State to which it is addressed"'6 The ECJ further states that "a directive may not of itself impose obligations on an individual and that a provision of a directive may not be relied upon as such against such a person". This conclusion formed the basis for succeeding case law. On close scrutiny three important problems can be reasoned out. A.G. Jacobs in Vaneetveld v Le Foyer SA7 stated that the approach as laid down by ECJ is difficult to resolve with the judicial interpretation to certain Treaty as also openly directed to the Member State. Thus in the Defrenne case8 the

You will find the topic in order instructions Essay

You will find the topic in order instructions - Essay Example Women are migrating overseas to look for work more and more because of the attractiveness that is on offer. These women are mostly not very highly educated, although the case of Rena demonstrates that it can even happen amongst college educated women to. In their home countries, women are likely to be restricted in what they can do simply due to the local traditions and customs. Many women feel bound to their home country because of the ways that they have been brought up. For these who rebel against cultural expectations, migrating to another country for work purposes is an attractive option because of the freedom that it gives. Generally, the pay is also greater because of the higher standard of living that is available. Aside from this, many women appreciate working in a foreign culture because it allows them to come out of their shell. Looking at it from the other side, there is a huge demand for female labor and this demand drives up the number of immigrants who choose to go to look for work in a foreign country. As previously stated above, many women find work in the service industry because that is the easiest work that they can perform. Exploitation is huge in these instances because employers can take advantages of their employees, who may not understand the local culture and thus are at the mercy of their superiors. Women who work in jobs like these may be asked to do something that they may not feel too comfortable with. However, because of their situation, they generally have no choice but to go along with what is being asked of them. This means that they are in a disadvantageous position and can be exploited. Depending on whether they are legal or not, they may not want to report something to the police for fear of being kicked out and sent back to their home countries. This may mean a loss of income for the women concerned, not to mention a complete loss of face. Faced with a tough choice, migrant women are more likely to comply with what

The organisational culture and employee behavior Essay

The organisational culture and employee behavior - Essay Example The following qualities will be examined in detail in the essay; All the above character traits can be used by leaders to influence organisational culture and hence employee behaviour. First of all, there will be a need to change corporate communication in order to create an open and transparent organisational culture. This can be achieved through giving clear communication thus eliminating here-say among members of the organisation. This enhances the way employees perceive themselves and will also affect their behaviour (Robbins, 2004) Decision making within any organisation needs to be done in such a way that it enhances independence. Employees need to feel that their respective organisations trust them to the point of allowing them to make decisions within the organisations. Experts have suggested that organisations where there is less bureaucracy in the process of decision making are generally more efficient. The reason why this occurs is that most employees will not waste time trying to maintain protocol. Details of how mangers can achieve this will be examined in the essay. Leaders need to motivate their employees. There are various ways in which this can be achieved; through reward systems, through allowances, flexible working hours and holiday provisions. Employees can also be motivated by possessing greater autonomy in the decision making process. Details of how managers can achieve this will be analysed in the essay. The overall effect of motivation is that it makes workers more energised. This can create a culture of hard work and will be manifested through employee behaviour. These interlink age will be elaborated further in the essay. (Dessler, 2001) The essay will also look at other quality traits that managers can utilise to influence their employees. This can be achieved through justice and honesty when handling employee cases. Leaders also need to employ

UK Company Law Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

UK Company Law Assignment - Essay Example Such authority is what is perceived by third parties to have been vested in an agent by the principal. The existence of such authority requires a representation to have been made to the third party. Such representation should originate from the principal or some entity having accrual authority3. In Freeman & Lockyer v Buckhurst Park Properties (Mangal) Ltd, the company was held to be liable, because the managing director had the authority to enter that particular type of contract on behalf of the company4. Angelina had been representing Brad, in his business, for many years. She used to help Brad in running his business, as she was well versed with makeup articles. As such, she had been acting as a representative of Brad, while conducting business with third parties. According to the ruling in the Freemans case, Angelina had acted as an agent of Brad, while entering into a contract with Aniston Ltd. This contract with Aniston Ltd is valid, in accordance with the principle of ostensible authority, which permits an agent to form a valid contract on behalf of her principal. Consequently, Brad is responsible for the acts of Angelina, while doing the business, including the contract with Aniston Ltd. Instances where a company's director will be held liable are given in the sequel. If a director wilfully acts over and above the powers bestowed upon him by the articles of association of the company, then he will be held liable for such transgressions. If the company becomes insolvent as a result of the fraudulent activities of a director, then he will be held to be responsible. Section 174(1) established the duty to exercise reasonable care, skill and diligence. This duty enshrines the rule of duty of care and skill of common law. Section 174(2) describes the amount of care, skill and diligence to be exercised by a director. Furthermore, the directors of a limited company are not personally liable for the acts of the company. However, if a director abuses his position in the company, then he will be held personally liable and prosecuted accordingly6. Brad, as a director with a fiduciary duty towards the company, has to ensure the well being of the company. He sold ' 100,000 worth goods to Sess for '60,000. As a director of the company, Brad cannot act in a manner that causes a loss to the company. For example, Section 172 of the Companies Act 2006 imposes a duty to promote the success of the company on its directors. This duty had been developed from the fiduciary duties owed by directors, such as duty of good faith and the duty to act in the best interests of the company7. Selling goods at a lower price results in financial loss to the company, and thereby implies a breach of statutory duties. Brad breached the fiduciary duty conferred up on him by section 172 of the Companies Act 2006. The director has to consider the long term consequences of the decisions taken in the interest of the company. He has to consider the interests of the employees of the company and other factors such as the relationships with the clients and suppliers of the company. In addition to these

Cover letter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

Cover letter - Essay Example I have worked as volunteer teacher in Saudi Educational Center in St John from March 2011 to June 2011 and from October 2011 to June 2012, where I was involved in the assessment of students’ abilities. My performance in this post has been lauded through securing first place among 3000 teachers in Dawadmi province as well as being first among the 7 teachers in my institution. During my stint as a teacher I have been able to motivate creativity in children and to encourage them to explore. Under the direction of the APSEA provincial supervisor, and consultation with the educational interpreter consultant and itinerant teacher, the successful applicant will provide educational support services by modeling sign language; facilitate communication between the student and their peers; also prepares and provides educational support services and materials, including tutoring, for a student who is deaf and communicates using sign

Scientific Method and Participant Observation Essay Example for Free

Scientific Method and Participant Observation Essay In the article, â€Å"Researching Dealers and Smugglers,† Patricia Adler discusses her and her husband’s experience using participant observation to collect data from drug dealers and the problems this qualitative method brought. A qualitative method focuses on collecting rich, non-statistical data. This method involves face-to-face interviews and actual participation with the group being researched. The Adlers use this method because it is almost impossible to gather accurate information on people who smuggle drugs. This is true because they are such private and deceitful people. The only way to get the real facts is if the smugglers trust the person. Unfortunately, participant observation brought problems such as the dealers and smugglers being under the influence or going through withdrawal during the interviews and the Adlers mixing their overt and covert roles. The Adlers chose participant observation because they found that using this method allowed them to acquire the most in-depth and rich data than any other method. If criminals like dealers and smugglers were given a survey, it would not work out because they are not just going to tell the truth and risk getting caught by the police. They are specific with who they give information to, so the Adlers had to show them that they could be trusted. They could not have done that with without using participant observation. Although there were many aspects about the Adlers that made them and the research method they used convenient, there were also some risks they had to take. While doing research, the Adlers encountered some problems using this method, one of which was interviewing the dealers and smugglers while they were under the influence of either marijuana or cocaine. In addition, the participants were sometimes withdrawal symptoms, so they were not able to interview properly. Patricia mentions how marijuana and cocaine had different effects on the interviewees. She states, â€Å"marijuana was unproductive for a number of reasons†¦ Often people became confused, sleepy, or involved in eating to varying degrees. ’ On the other hand, cocaine assisted the research procedure by making the dealers feel more comfortable. Cocaine also helped the dealers open up easily. During the interviews, some dealers experienced withdrawal symptoms. It caused them to become malicious with each other or towards the Alders without any warning. The way the Alders solved this problem was by taking precautions when interacting with the dealers. The cocaine use was not a problem for the Adlers, but they most likely dealt with the marijuana issue quite easily since Patricia does not specifically explain how it was solved. In addition, there was another problem the Adlers encountered. The Adlers also found that mixing the overt and covert roles with the members of the group throughout the investigation was another issue. Since the Adlers had different level relationships with every individual, some of the dealers were aware that they were a part of a research project while others were not aware. This sometimes confused the Adlers. Patricia states, â€Å"They [the informants] would made occasional veiled references in front of people, especially when loosened by intoxicants, that made us extremely uncomfortable. † This issue made the couple uncomfortable because they did not want to blow their cover. Patricia and Peter Adler also feared that the participants would think they are police. Peter and Patricia Adler solved this issue by take the necessary safety measures so anyone they did not want to find out. The Adlers encountered various problems while utilizing this qualitative method. They had troubles such as mixing their covert and overt roles and dealing with some of the smugglers and dealers being intoxicated. Therefore this investigation became very risky, but Patricia and her husband finalized by collecting all the data needed. The Adlers also resolved their problems in a cautious way utilizing patience, precaution, and rational and clever thinking. The couple definitely learned a lot throughout the experiment and got more than they anticipated going through it.